While female factory workers and agricultural servants were primarily young and single, female agricultural labourers were more likely to be middle-aged, married mothers. This paper examines the female labourers at two south-western farms and finds that middle-aged married women account for the majority of days worked. Widows and mothers of illegitimate children account for only a small fraction o

Using the wage accounts of two different farms in the 1830s and 1840s, matched with census records to determine the age of the workers, this article estimates age-wage profiles for male and female agricultural labourers. Females earned less than males, and had less wage growth over their life cycles. Male wage profiles peaked at age 30–5, earlier than the wage profiles of workers today. Before the

Using a new sample of farm accounts from 84 farms throughout England, this article provides measures of regional variation and changes over time in female wages and employment in agriculture. Female wages were not fixed, but changed over time and responded to high demand for female labour. The female-male wage ratio fell between 1750 and 1850, except in the industrial north west. In 1851 approxima

The wage book of a Derbyshire farm, which includes payments to laborers for 1772 to 1775 and 1831 to 1845, allows me to examine the employment patterns of male and female day-laborers at this farm before and after important innovations in agriculture. I find a fall in relative female employment which appears to be due to a fall in demand. Male employment shifted to the spring, but female employmen

During the industrial revolution women's wages were substantially lower than men’s. This article documents the wage gap and shows that in most cases it can be explained without reference to wage discrimination. First, the wage data we have overestimate the wage gap; correcting for biases due to measurement error reduces the size of the wage gap. Second, because differences in productivity were sub

In the unskilled labor market of Industrial Revolution Britain, there was a distinct division of labor between the sexes. This occupational sorting may have been caused by gender discrimination, but, because men and women had different comparative advantages, it could also have been produced by a competitive market. This paper attempts to determine whether the division of labor resulted from discr

Johan Ekeblad was a Swedish diplomat and nobleman during the period of the Swedish Empire in the 17th century who is mostly known for his letters, written in an impressionistic and highly modern style. This paper aims to treat Johan Ekeblad and his writing as a representative of a new form of mentality that emerged amongst Swedes when Sweden due to its new power reemerged on the European scene. Th

This article studies two post-war documentary films set in India, Indian Village (1951) and The Wind and the River (1953), directed by the celebrated Swedish filmmaker Arne Sucksdorff. While many scholars have studied these films in relation to Sucksdorff’s biography and Swedish national cinema, less emphasis has been placed on these Indian documentaries in relation to other international documentThis article studies two post-war documentary films set in India, Indian Village (1951) and The Wind and the River (1953), directed by the celebrated Swedish filmmaker Arne Sucksdorff. While many scholars have studied these films in relation to Sucksdorff’s biography and Swedish national cinema, less emphasis has been placed on these Indian documentaries in relation to other international document

Byproducts from quinoa are not yet well explored sources of hemicellulose or products thereof. In this work, xylan from milled quinoa stalks was retrieved to 66% recovery by akaline extraction using 0.5 M NaOH at 80 °C, followed by ethanol precipitation. The isolated polymer eluted as a single peak in size-exclusion chromatography with a molecular weight of >700 kDa. Analysis by Fourier transform